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All of these, to different extents, are also present in female sexual violence and male sexual violence committed in time of peace. Section 4 explores these dynamics, namely ideas of power and domination, emasculation, feminization, homosexualization, prevention of procreation and collective domination. It is important to distinguish between them in order to consider the different dynamics present in each.
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Focus falls on rape, enforced sterilization and other forms of sexual violence. On the basis of these definitions, it distinguishes between various forms of male sexual violence committed in armed conflict.
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Section 3 defines the notion of ‘sexual violence’, considering a number of definitions that have been put forward previously. It also puts forward several reasons that may explain why the numbers remain unknown, from lack of reporting on the part of the victim through to lack of detection on the part of those working with survivors. It analyses the evidence of male sexual violence in a number of respects: in terms of the conflicts in which it is found, as regards the particular sources of evidence that document the abuse and with respect to the precise numbers at issue. Section 2 of this article considers the extent of male sexual violence committed in armed conflict. To the limited extent that they exist, this article also draws on medical studies of male victims of sexual violence committed in time of conflict and reports of non-governmental and intergovernmental agencies that have addressed the issue. Sometimes speculative given the sparse nature of the material on the subject, it is still necessary to put these ideas out in order to stimulate discussion and encourage further analysis. Accordingly, where appropriate, various themes are extracted from these differing situations and applied to male sexual violence in time of conflict. It does so, in part, as materials are more readily available in these areas, but more importantly because many of the dynamics present in these offences are largely replicated in male sexual violence in armed conflict. It draws largely from medical and criminological studies of male victims of sexual violence committed in time of peace and analyses of sexual violence committed against women both in time of peace and in time of conflict. This article examines the issue of male sexual violence in armed conflict. We know it exists but we do not know to what extent. Despite these accounts, relatively little material exists on the subject and the numbers remain unclear. They may be hard to find, for survivors will often recall what they witnessed rather than express what they themselves experienced reports of commissions and investigative bodies will often record the atrocities under the rubric of torture and not sexual violence. They are there in the testimonies of survivors and in the reports of commissions and investigative bodies. These reports may be buried under a wealth of other information but they are there. Reports of sexual violence by men against men (‘male sexual violence’) emerge from many conflicts. One area to which little attention has been paid is sexual violence against men in armed conflict. Although there has been some positive development in certain areas, 2 there has been little or none in others. It has been written that, ‘n some respects, the situation facing male rape victims today is not so different from that which faced female victims, say, two centuries ago.’ 1 Not much has changed in the period since that comment was made. It is perpetrated at home, in the community and in prison by men and by women during conflict and in time of peace. Sexual violence is committed against men more frequently than is often thought. The symbolic construction of male and female bodies in armed conflict is also explored. Thus, attention is paid to ideas of feminization, homosexualization and the prevention of procreation. The dynamics present in these offences are explored, with issues of power and dominance, expressed through emasculation, considered. The particular forms of male sexual violence are also examined: namely rape, enforced sterilization and other forms of sexual violence, including enforced nudity, enforced masturbation and genital violence. It considers factors that explain under-reporting by victims and lack of detection on the part of others. This article ascertains the extent to which male sexual violence is committed in armed conflict. Despite these accounts, relatively little material exists on the subject and the issue tends to be relegated to a footnote. Reports of sexual violence by men against men emerge from numerous conflicts, ranging in time from Ancient Persia and the Crusades to the conflicts in Iraq and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.